並系群
並系(英文:paraphyly 或 paraphyletic)又稱並源[1],是親緣關係學上常用的概念,指某一生物類群包含了一個共同祖先及其部分後代,但未包含其所有後代。這種由同一祖先演化而來的部分後代所組成的類群,被稱為並系群[2](英文:paraphyletic group;中國大陸又譯作偏系群[3],臺灣又譯作側系群[4]或旁系群[5])。通常並系群包含了與祖先相比性狀變化不大的成員,而變化更大的成員則被排除在外[6]。根據生物分類學界普遍認同的支序系統學觀點,任何合理有效的自然分類群都應為單系群(包含一個祖先及其所有後代[7]),因此並系群被視作不完整的、人為設定的非自然類群[8]。
與並系群和單系群相關的概念還有多系群,又稱複系群,是指不具有最近共同祖先的生物類群,即一群來源於不同祖先的生物被人為歸類在一起,同樣不被視作自然合理的分類群[2][8]。並系群與多系群的產生,大部分為傳統認知的局限性所致,在未修正為單系群之前,通常被學界視作無效的分類。與多系群一般作拆分處理相對,並系群一般會進行合併處理。隨著生物分類研究的不斷深入和遺傳學技術的不斷完善,許多過去遺留的並系群已被合併調整為單系群。
詞源
編輯在英語和其他一些使用拉丁字母書寫的語言中,「並系」(英文:paraphyly 或 paraphyletic)這一術語源自兩個古希臘文單詞:前綴「παρά」(拉丁轉寫:pará;意為旁邊、附近)+詞根「φῦλον」(phûlon;屬,種)[9][10],指某生物類群與其唯一共同祖先的其他所有後代相互分離、未被歸於一類的情況。
與之對應的術語「單系」(英文:monophyly 或 monophyletic),指某生物類群由其唯一共同祖先的所有後代組成。詞根與「並系」同源,前綴來自古希臘文「μόνος」(mónos;單獨的,唯一的)[9][10]。
另一相關術語「多系」(英文:polyphyly 或 polyphyletic),指某生物類群出自多個祖先,即內部成員各自有著不同的起源。詞根也與「並系」同源,前綴來自古希臘文「πολύς」(polús;多,很多)[9][10]。
範例
編輯並系群中一個典型的例子,是傳統分類法所定義的爬蟲綱。古生物學和遺傳學證據均明確顯示,鳥類為恐龍的後裔,並且是鱷魚現存關係最近的旁親。爬蟲綱的傳統定義包含了鳥類的祖先(恐龍),但卻未包含該祖先的後裔(鳥類),因此有部分學者使用蜥形綱來取代傳統的爬蟲綱,將鳥類劃入其中,以構成一個完整的單系群[11]。
現生羊膜動物的分化關係如下所示,傳統意義上的爬蟲綱為並系群,只有當其包含鳥類(與蜥形綱同義)時,方能成為合理的單系群[12]。
|
爬蟲綱 Reptilia |
另一個廣為人知的並系群是舊時定義的偶蹄目。遺傳學研究表明,鯨豚類動物是偶蹄目的演化支,而在傳統分類中,鯨豚類被單列為鯨目,並不屬於偶蹄動物,這意味著傳統的偶蹄目實為不合理的並系群[13]。因此,現行分類將鯨目降級為鯨下目,歸入偶蹄目之下,以形成完整的單系群[14][15]。
|
傳統的偶蹄目 |
除上述兩個例子之外,生物分類學上其他的主要並系群如下:
並系群名稱 | 應包含而未包含的演化支 | 對應的單系群 | 參考文獻 |
---|---|---|---|
原核生物(Prokaryota) | 真核生物(Eukaryota) | 生物 | [16] |
原生生物(Protista) | 植物、動物、真菌 | 真核生物 | [17] |
輪藻門(Charophyta) | 有胚植物(Embryophyta) | 鏈型植物(Streptophyta) | [18] |
苔蘚植物 | 維管束植物(Tracheophyta) | 有胚植物 | [19][18] |
裸子植物(Gymnospermae) | 被子植物(Angiospermae) | 種子植物(Spermatophyta) | [20] |
雙子葉植物 | 單子葉植物 | 被子植物 | [21] |
無脊椎動物 | 脊椎動物(Vertebrata) | 動物界(Animalia) | [22] |
海綿 | 真後生動物(Eumetazoa) | 動物界 | [23][24] |
輻射對稱動物(Radiata) | 兩側對稱動物(Bilateria) | 真後生動物 | [25] |
珊瑚 | 水母亞門(Medusozoa)、黏體動物亞門(Myxozoa) | 刺胞動物門(Cnidaria) | [26][27] |
水母 | 軟水母亞綱(Hydroidolina) | 水母亞門 | [28][29][30] |
蠕蟲 | 不固定,因使用情況而異 | 腎管動物(Nephrozoa) | [31][32] |
環神經動物(Cycloneuralia) | 泛節肢動物(Panarthropoda) | 蛻皮動物(Ecdysozoa) | [33][34] |
甲殼亞門(Crustacea) | 六足亞門(Hexapoda) | 泛甲殼動物(Pancrustacea) | [35][36] |
蛾 | 蝴蝶 | 鱗翅目(Lepidoptera) | [37] |
廣腰亞目(Symphyta) | 細腰亞目(Apocrita) | 膜翅目(Hymenoptera) | [38] |
黃蜂 | 螞蟻(蟻總科 Formicoidea)、蜜蜂(花蜂類 Anthophila) | 細腰亞目 | [39] |
胡蜂總科(Vespoidea) | 蟻總科、蜜蜂總科(Apoidea) | 真針尾類(Euaculeata) | [39] |
扁蟲動物(Platyzoa) | 冠輪動物(Lophotrochozoa)、中生動物(Mesozoa) | 螺旋動物(Spiralia) | [40] |
輪蟲動物門(Rotifera) | 棘頭動物門(Acanthocephala) | 合皮動物(Syndermata) | [41][42] |
鸚鵡螺亞綱(Nautiloidea) | 菊石亞綱(Ammonoidea)、蛸亞綱(Coleoidea) | 頭足綱(Cephalopoda) | [43] |
魚綱(Pisces) | 四足動物(Tetrapoda) | 脊椎動物 | [38] |
蜥蜴亞目(Lacertilia) | 蛇亞目(Serpentes)、蚓蜥類(Amphisbaenia) | 有鱗目(Squamata) | [44] |
盤龍目(Pelycosaur) | 獸孔目(Therapsida) | 合弓綱(Synapsida) | [11] |
斜溝齒獸亞目(Plagiaulacida) | 土鼠亞目(Cimolodonta)、北美俊獸科(Arginbaataridae) | 多瘤齒獸目(Multituberculata) | [45] |
古鯨類(Archaeoceti) | 新鯨類(Neoceti) | 鯨類(Cetacea) | [46] |
原猿類(Prosimii) | 類人猿下目(Simiiformes) | 靈長目(Primates) | [47] |
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Symphyta and Apocrita have long been considered as suborders of Hymenoptera but since recognition of the paraphyletic nature of the Symphyta (Köningsmann 1977, Rasnitsyn 1988) and the advent of cladistic methods the subordinal classification should be avoided. Likewise the woodwasps are thought to be non-monophyletic, forming a grade that is ancestral relative to Apocrita and Orussidae. The traditional hymenopteran classification is faulty, by cladistic criteria,in the same way as pre-cladistic vertebrate classifications in which groups sharing plesiomorphic characterswere recognized as natural, e.g., fishes were once grouped together as 'Pisces', which excluded tetrapods.
[廣腰亞目和細腰亞目長期以來一直被認為是膜翅目的兩個亞目,但由於認識到廣腰亞目的並系性(Köningsmann 1977,Rasnitsyn 1988),加上支序學分類法的出現,這樣的亞目分類應當避免。同樣的,樹蜂被認為是非單系的,形成了一個相對於細腰亞目和尾蜂科的祖先級別。傳統的膜翅目分類是錯誤的,根據支序學的標準,這種情況與支序學出現之前的脊椎動物分類相同,那時認為具有共同祖徵的類群是自然的,例如魚類曾被統一歸為「魚綱」,將四足動物排除在外。] - ^ 39.0 39.1 Johnson, Brian R.; Borowiec, Marek L.; Chiu, Joanna C.; Lee, Ernest K.; Atallah, Joel; Ward, Philip S. Phylogenomics Resolves Evolutionary Relationships among Ants, Bees, and Wasps (PDF). Current Biology. 2013, 23 (20): 2058–2062. PMID 24094856. S2CID 230835 . doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.08.050 .
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外部連結
編輯- 維基共享資源上的相關多媒體資源:並系群
- Funk, D.J.; Omland, K.E. Species-Level Paraphyly and Polyphyly: Frequency, Causes, and Consequences, with Insights from Animal Mitochondrial DNA. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 2003, 34: 397–423. JSTOR 30033781. S2CID 33951905 . doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132421.