蜂后

蜂后又称蜂王、女王蜂，是蜜蜂群体中唯一能正常产卵的雌性蜂，蜂后通常是蜂群中其它成员的母亲，因此也称之为母蜂。一个蜜蜂群体中可能有几千到几万只蜜蜂，但只会有一只蜂后。除了产卵，蜂后的各种腺体还会释放不同的信息素，调节工蜂的行为和生理，维持蜂群的稳定^[1]。

特征和生命周期

蜂后会从蜂王台中出生，预计成为蜂后的幼虫会持续食用蜂王浆直到发育完成，未持续食用蜂王浆的雌性幼虫会成为工蜂。蜂后的寿命一般约26个月^[2]，但2010年代以来大部分蜂后的寿命不到一年^[3]。蜂后一生都依赖于食用蜂王浆来延长寿命。

从卵发育成蜂后羽化需要的时间依蜜蜂的品种而不同，东方蜜蜂需要15天，西方蜜蜂需要16天，而西方蜜蜂的亚种东非蜂需15天。

先羽化的新蜂后会寻找尚未羽化的蜂后并摧毁潜在的竞争者，若多只新蜂后同时羽化，新蜂后之间将展开激烈的厮杀，最后只会留下一只新蜂后。

交尾与繁殖

蜂后羽化后大约7～10天交尾，交尾后2～3天开始产卵。处女蜂后是指未发育完成、未达到交尾期而还未交尾的蜂后；或指错过交尾时刻的蜂后，后者由于未能受精，只能以孤雌生殖产下雄蜂。

即使成功受精，若然粮食短缺，工蜂会减少对蜂后的喂食，导致蜂后无法或减少产下后代。

处女蜂王在空中与多头雄蜂（平均12只^[4]）交尾，获取的精子储存在受精囊中供其一生产卵使用^[5]。蜂后的一雌多雄交尾方式增加了蜂群内后代工蜂的遗传多样性^[6]，提高了蜂群的抗病能力和适应度^[7]^[8]^[9]。

蜂后的有效交尾频率对蜂群的发展具有重要影响，充分的交尾频率（有效交尾频率高于7）有助于蜂群的稳定发展和提高生产能力^[2]。

长久只能产下雄蜂的处女蜂后，最终很可能被工蜂推翻，以新蜂后作替换；或是如果工蜂无法造出新蜂后，雄蜂增多，又缺少新工蜂填补，最终导致蜂群灭亡。

病虫害

蜜蜂作为多种病原体的宿主，容易受到各种病虫害的影响，而蜂王也不例外。主要的病虫害包括蜂螨、微孢子虫以及多种病毒。^[2]

最为严重的蜜蜂病虫害之一是狄斯瓦螨（Varroa destructor）^[10]。武氏蜂盾螨（Acarapis woodi）在蜂王中的寄生也较为普遍^[11]，感染会导致蜂王体重下降，受精囊内储存的精子数量减少^[12]。

感染蜜蜂的微孢子虫有蜜蜂微孢子虫（Nosema apis）和东方蜜蜂微孢子虫（Nosema ceranae）^[13]，这两种微孢子虫均可感染蜂王，并导致组织损伤^[14]^[15]。感染蜂王后，其卵母细胞表面形态发生改变，内部卵黄颗粒分解，部分线粒体退化，同时肠上皮细胞增生、围食膜退化，进而导致蜂王产下的卵中有大比例的卵不能孵化^[16]。

已经鉴定出超过30种蜜蜂病毒，其中中已在蜂王体内检测到的病毒包括残翅病毒（Deformed wing virus）、狄斯瓦螨病毒-1（Varroa destructor virus-1）、类瓦螨病毒（Varroa destructor Macula-like virus）、慢性麻痹病毒（Slow bee paralysis virus）、黑蜂王台病毒（Black queen cell virus）、蜜蜂慢性麻痹病毒（Chronic bee paralysis virus）、蜜蜂急性麻痹病毒（Acute bee paralysis virus）、以色列急性麻痹病毒（Israeli acute paralysis virus）、囊状幼虫病毒（Sacbrood virus）以及克什米尔蜜蜂病毒（Kashmir bee virus）等^[2]。蜂王感染病毒通常不会出现明显症状^[17]，但某些病毒感染，如残翅病毒可能导致蜂王翅膀畸形^[18]。

参考文献

^ Slessor, KN; Winston, ML; Le Conte, Y. Pheromone communication in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.).. Journal of chemical ecology. 2005-11, 31 (11): 2731–45. PMID 16273438. doi:10.1007/s10886-005-7623-9.
^ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 杜瀚超; 袁春颖，丁桂玲. 蜜蜂蜂王质量及其性状表现影响因素研究进展. 环境昆虫学报. 2023, 45 (1): 30–41 [2024-02-25]. （原始内容存档于2024-02-25）.
^ Tarpy, David R.; vanEngelsdorp, Dennis; Pettis, Jeffrey S. Genetic diversity affects colony survivorship in commercial honey bee colonies. Naturwissenschaften. 2013-08, 100 (8): 723–728. doi:10.1007/s00114-013-1065-y.
^ Tarpy, D. R.; Nielsen, R.; Nielsen, D. I. A scientific note on the revised estimates of effective paternity frequency in Apis. Insectes Sociaux. 2004-05-01, 51 (2): 203–204. doi:10.1007/s00040-004-0734-4.
^ Boomsma, JJ; Baer, B; Heinze, J. The evolution of male traits in social insects.. Annual review of entomology. 2005, 50: 395–420. PMID 15822204. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130416.
^ Palmer, Kellie A.; Oldroyd, Benjamin P. Evolution of multiple mating in the genus Apis. Apidologie. 2000-03, 31 (2): 235–248. doi:10.1051/apido:2000119.
^ Seeley, TD; Tarpy, DR. Queen promiscuity lowers disease within honeybee colonies.. Proceedings. Biological sciences. 2007-01-07, 274 (1606): 67–72. PMID 17015336. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3702.
^ Mattila, HR; Seeley, TD. Genetic diversity in honey bee colonies enhances productivity and fitness.. Science (New York, N.Y.). 2007-07-20, 317 (5836): 362–4. PMID 17641199. doi:10.1126/science.1143046.
^ Ding, G; Xu, H; Oldroyd, BP; Gloag, RS. Extreme polyandry aids the establishment of invasive populations of a social insect.. Heredity. 2017-11, 119 (5): 381–387. PMID 28832579. doi:10.1038/hdy.2017.49.
^ Calderone, Nicholas W.; Lin, Sisi; Kuenen, Lodewyk P.S. Differential infestation of honey bee, Apis mellifera , worker and queen brood by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. Apidologie. 2002-07, 33 (4): 389–398. doi:10.1051/apido:2002024.
^ Pettis, J. S.; Dietz, A.; Eischen, F. A. Incidence rates of Acarapis woodi (Rennie) in queen honey bees of various ages. Apidologie. 1989, 20 (1): 69–75. doi:10.1051/apido:19890107.
^ Camazine; et al. How Healthy are Commercially-produced U.S. Honey Bee Queens?. American Bee Journal. 1998, 138 (9): 677–680.
^ Fries, Ingemar; Chauzat, Marie-Pierre; Chen, Yan-Ping; Doublet, Vincent; Genersch, Elke; Gisder, Sebastian; Higes, Mariano; McMahon, Dino P; Martín-Hernández, Raquel; Natsopoulou, Myrsini; Paxton, Robert J; Tanner, Gina; Webster, Thomas C; Williams, Geoffrey R. Standard methods for Nosema research. Journal of Apicultural Research. 2013-01, 52 (1): 1–28. doi:10.3896/IBRA.1.52.1.14.
^ Loskotova, J.; Peroutka, M.; Vesely, V. NOSEMA DISEASE OF HONEYBEE QUEENS (APIS MELLIFICA L.). Apidologie. 1980, 11 (2): 153–161. doi:10.1051/apido:19800205.
^ Traver, Brenna E.; Fell, Richard D. Low natural levels of Nosema ceranae in Apis mellifera queens. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 2012-07, 110 (3): 408–410. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2012.04.001.
^ Hassanein, M. H. Studies on the Effect of Infection with Nosema apis on the Physiology of the Queen Honey-bee. Journal of Cell Science. 1951-06-01, S3–92 (18): 225–231. doi:10.1242/jcs.s3-92.18.225.
^ Amiri, E; Strand, MK; Tarpy, DR; Rueppell, O. Honey Bee Queens and Virus Infections.. Viruses. 2020-03-17, 12 (3). PMID 32192060. doi:10.3390/v12030322.
^ Williams, GR; Rogers, RE; Kalkstein, AL; Taylor, BA; Shutler, D; Ostiguy, N. Deformed wing virus in western honey bees (Apis mellifera) from Atlantic Canada and the first description of an overtly-infected emerging queen.. Journal of invertebrate pathology. 2009-04, 101 (1): 77–9. PMID 19373971. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2009.01.004.

[1] Slessor, KN; Winston, ML; Le Conte, Y. Pheromone communication in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.).. Journal of chemical ecology. 2005-11, 31 (11): 2731–45. PMID 16273438. doi:10.1007/s10886-005-7623-9.

[hjkcxb202301003-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 杜瀚超; 袁春颖，丁桂玲. 蜜蜂蜂王质量及其性状表现影响因素研究进展. 环境昆虫学报. 2023, 45 (1): 30–41 [2024-02-25]. （原始内容存档于2024-02-25）.

[3] Tarpy, David R.; vanEngelsdorp, Dennis; Pettis, Jeffrey S. Genetic diversity affects colony survivorship in commercial honey bee colonies. Naturwissenschaften. 2013-08, 100 (8): 723–728. doi:10.1007/s00114-013-1065-y.

[4] Tarpy, D. R.; Nielsen, R.; Nielsen, D. I. A scientific note on the revised estimates of effective paternity frequency in Apis. Insectes Sociaux. 2004-05-01, 51 (2): 203–204. doi:10.1007/s00040-004-0734-4.

[5] Boomsma, JJ; Baer, B; Heinze, J. The evolution of male traits in social insects.. Annual review of entomology. 2005, 50: 395–420. PMID 15822204. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130416.

[6] Palmer, Kellie A.; Oldroyd, Benjamin P. Evolution of multiple mating in the genus Apis. Apidologie. 2000-03, 31 (2): 235–248. doi:10.1051/apido:2000119.

[7] Seeley, TD; Tarpy, DR. Queen promiscuity lowers disease within honeybee colonies.. Proceedings. Biological sciences. 2007-01-07, 274 (1606): 67–72. PMID 17015336. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3702.

[8] Mattila, HR; Seeley, TD. Genetic diversity in honey bee colonies enhances productivity and fitness.. Science (New York, N.Y.). 2007-07-20, 317 (5836): 362–4. PMID 17641199. doi:10.1126/science.1143046.

[9] Ding, G; Xu, H; Oldroyd, BP; Gloag, RS. Extreme polyandry aids the establishment of invasive populations of a social insect.. Heredity. 2017-11, 119 (5): 381–387. PMID 28832579. doi:10.1038/hdy.2017.49.

[10] Calderone, Nicholas W.; Lin, Sisi; Kuenen, Lodewyk P.S. Differential infestation of honey bee, Apis mellifera , worker and queen brood by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. Apidologie. 2002-07, 33 (4): 389–398. doi:10.1051/apido:2002024.

[11] Pettis, J. S.; Dietz, A.; Eischen, F. A. Incidence rates of Acarapis woodi (Rennie) in queen honey bees of various ages. Apidologie. 1989, 20 (1): 69–75. doi:10.1051/apido:19890107.

[12] Camazine; et al. How Healthy are Commercially-produced U.S. Honey Bee Queens?. American Bee Journal. 1998, 138 (9): 677–680.

[13] Fries, Ingemar; Chauzat, Marie-Pierre; Chen, Yan-Ping; Doublet, Vincent; Genersch, Elke; Gisder, Sebastian; Higes, Mariano; McMahon, Dino P; Martín-Hernández, Raquel; Natsopoulou, Myrsini; Paxton, Robert J; Tanner, Gina; Webster, Thomas C; Williams, Geoffrey R. Standard methods for Nosema research. Journal of Apicultural Research. 2013-01, 52 (1): 1–28. doi:10.3896/IBRA.1.52.1.14.

[14] Loskotova, J.; Peroutka, M.; Vesely, V. NOSEMA DISEASE OF HONEYBEE QUEENS (APIS MELLIFICA L.). Apidologie. 1980, 11 (2): 153–161. doi:10.1051/apido:19800205.

[15] Traver, Brenna E.; Fell, Richard D. Low natural levels of Nosema ceranae in Apis mellifera queens. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 2012-07, 110 (3): 408–410. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2012.04.001.

[16] Hassanein, M. H. Studies on the Effect of Infection with Nosema apis on the Physiology of the Queen Honey-bee. Journal of Cell Science. 1951-06-01, S3–92 (18): 225–231. doi:10.1242/jcs.s3-92.18.225.

[17] Amiri, E; Strand, MK; Tarpy, DR; Rueppell, O. Honey Bee Queens and Virus Infections.. Viruses. 2020-03-17, 12 (3). PMID 32192060. doi:10.3390/v12030322.

[18] Williams, GR; Rogers, RE; Kalkstein, AL; Taylor, BA; Shutler, D; Ostiguy, N. Deformed wing virus in western honey bees (Apis mellifera) from Atlantic Canada and the first description of an overtly-infected emerging queen.. Journal of invertebrate pathology. 2009-04, 101 (1): 77–9. PMID 19373971. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2009.01.004.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]